Rene Descartes Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Rene Descartes - Assignment Example France was becoming one of the main players in the European arena, a unitary state with strong monarchical power. Absolutism didn’t only provide favorable conditions for the domestic market, but also broadened the gap between social strata. Whereas Catholicism strengthened its position in French spiritual and cultural life, scientific progress driven by the development of productive capacities was the key factor that sparked Descarte’s worldview formation. In his pursuit of new philosophical methods Descartes was initially motivated by the need to find a way of defining certain knowledge and the way of acquiring it for he thought knowledge acquired with help of sense perception to be inaccurate. Moreover, he was fond of science which wasn’t well organized system in that period, thus he wanted to find a solution that would systematize scientific knowledge. In fact, Descartes laid the basics of science in its modern meaning and inquiry, made an immense contribution to development of algebra, geometry, philosophy, physics and reflexology. Considering philosophy to be the source of all natural sciences’ development, Descartes tried to find a firm set of rules that would help one to acquire certain knowledge. The basic work dealing with the foundations of Cartesian methodology is Discourse on Method focusing on the application of the main Descartes’ method, hyperbolical doubt or methodological skepticism. At the same time, the philosopher preferred to neglect empirical method in constructing knowledge, and thus used a method of deduction and argumentation. Thinking was considered by him to be the source of cognition, not senses. Along with that, Descartes philosophical doctrine was dualistic as he admitted existence of two entities that, mind and body, that are in the relations of mutual dependence and interconnection. To illustrate the unreliability and limitation of

Outline and evaluate the working memory model Essay Example for Free

Outline and evaluate the working memory model Essay Baddeley and Hitch (1974) developed an alternative model of short-term memory which they called the working memory model. The working memory model consists of four components. The central executive which controls and co-ordinates the operation of two subsystems, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. The central executive controls attention and coordinates the actions of the other components, it can briefly store information, but has a limited capacity. The phonological loop consists of two parts, the articulatory control system and the phonological store. The articulatory control system (the inner voice) where information is rehearsed sub vocally and has a capacity of about 2 seconds. The phonological store (the inner ear) stores information in speech-based form, the speech input is held for a brief duration. The third component, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, mentally manipulates images and space, for example it is used when a person imagines the encodes visual information in terms of separate objects as well as the arrangement of these objects in ones visual field. The final component, episodic buffer, receives input from many sources, temporarily stores this information, and then puts them together in order to construct a mental episode of what is being experienced right now. The evidence of the existence of the working memory model offers a better account than the STM component of the multi-store memory model. This is because it moves from describing immediate memory as a unitary store to one with a number of components. The working memory model does not over emphasize the importance of rehearsal for STM retention, in contrast to the multi-store model. It is an optional process rather than the only means by which information is kept in immediate memory. The working memory model also explains many psychological observations. The KF case study supports the Working Memory Model. KF suffered brain damage from a motorcycle accident that damaged his short-term memory. KFs impairment was mainly for verbal information his memory for visual information was largely unaffected. This shows that there are separate STM components for visual information (visuo-spatial sketchpad) and verbal information (phonological loop). However, there are also arguments to suggest weaknesses of the working memory model. The main limitation is the lack of evidence for the central executive, some psychologists believe it is too vague. Critics also feel that the notion of a single central executive is wrong and that there are probably several components. This could make the working memory model appear reductionist because it has only been described as being unitary and over simplified. From this, it could be suggested that it is lacking in detail and is not fully reliable. Finally, much of the supporting evidence for this model comes from the study of brain-damaged individuals, where it is impossible to make before and after comparisons, so it is not clear whether changes in behaviour is caused by the damage. Finally, the process of brain injury is traumatic, which may in itself change behaviour. These factors limit the validity of any conclusions drawn.

Analysis Of The Army Of God Terrorist Philosophy Essay

Analysis Of The Army Of God Terrorist Philosophy Essay In the current essay I would like to make an analysis of one of the U.S. terroristic organization so-called Army of God. I would like to consider what aims this organization wants to achieve, what methods it uses and how our society relates to this organization. As a matter of fact terrorism is a policy, based on the systematic use of terror.  The word terror is a synonymous to the words violence, intimidation and fear.  In the U.S. legal system terror is a premeditated, politically motivated violence, perpetrated against the civilian population or objects by different sub-national groups or clandestine agents in order to influence the mood of society.  There are different types of terrorism, among them are: By the nature of the subject, terrorism is divided into:  unorganized or individual in this case, the attack is made by one or two people and organized (collective) the terrorist activity is planned and implemented by a certain organization (Al-Qaeda, IRA, ETA and so on). As a rule, organized terrorism is the most common in the modern world.   Goals of terrorism are divided into following: nationalist pursues separatist or national liberation objectives;  religious can be linked to the struggle between the adherents of a religion (Muslims and Christians etc.). Social is intended to partial or radical changes in economic or political system, to attract public attention to any acute problem.  Sometimes this kind of terrorism is called revolutionary.  Of course, this division is conditional and terrorism similarities can be found in all its forms, as described in US Domestic Terrorism: Army of God. It can be said that Army of God is related to organized and social terrorism. On the one hand, Army of God is well organized group of people with common goals and on the other hand, partial changes in economic and political system of the U.S., specifically, complete ban of abortion. It should be noted that Army of God is an anti-abortion terrorist organization, which approves violence and terrorism to fight abortion in the United States.  AOG supports the Second Defensive Action Statement, which is issued by the Defenders of Life, which read: We, who sign below, announced that divine justice action is required, including the use of violence, to protect innocent human life (which was born and the unborn).We just announced any acts of violence and it is reasonable to maintain the life of a child born to defend the life of an unborn child, as stated in Army Of God? Body I presume that terroristic activity against abortion began in United States and Canada in the 70-ies of the XX century. As a fact, at first appeared terrorist organization Anti-Abortion Violence Movement (AAVM).  Terrorists set fire, blow up and destroy clinics, kill doctors and politicians and so on. As a rule, AAVM had training centers for like-minded people, where organization showed how to plan and organize military operations.  Terrorists have their own magazine; maintain contacts with right-wing movements, such as the Ku Klux Klan.   As a matter of fact, our country has a long history of small terrorist groups with religious nature, which carry out attacks on certain sectors of society who do not follow their own moral teachings and principals. One of such groups is the American Christian fundamentalist organization is known as the Army of God.  This group promotes the usage of violence against abortion clinics and homosexual community.  The Army of God has been linked to several bombings of such clinics, and uses biblical justification for an attack on the medical personnel who carry out abortions.  For example, Pastor Michael Bray one of the leading members of the organization was serving sentence in prison for the bombing of abortion clinics.  As a fact, army of God has developed a manual for counseling members on how to attack the clinic using arson, acid, as well as instructions on bomb making, as described in Army of God: Still Marching. It can be said that Army of God demonstrates the profound conviction as anti-abortion, homophobic, and sharply criticize the U.S. government for not holding to what it sees as Christian values.  In 1998, a member of the Army of God, James Kopp killed Dr. Barnett Slepian and it is considered that the organization has been linked to many other similar surveys between 1994 and 1997.  The Army of God have also tried to use public fears of terrorist biological attack with one member, Clayton Waagner, sending more than 550 letters to abortion clinics in 2001, claiming they contained anthrax and can infect those who opened them.   It is believed that the group operates major terrorist network.  In combination with a very close knit nature of communities, many of the members came to organization from the army; they seem to have lack of experience in funding or knowledge how to carry out large-scale effective attack.  It is believed that the Army of God may be involved in the attacks on gays and lesbians in May 1999, when 2 people were killed.  It is unlikely that the Army of God is real organization beyond the individual groups and no strong leadership has been defined, although several people have joined the group. The most famous terroristic act of the organization was bombings at the 1996 Olympics Atlanta that killed one person and injured more than hundreds of others.  The Army of God is a good example of a low level fundamentalist terrorists group, which get their limited knowledge and skills from the Internet or some ex-soldiers to carry out low level attacks and criminal activities in the future, what they see as their own moral code, as stated in History of the Army of God. Many experts consider that Army of God is the latest extremist religious group in the spotlight.  I would like to consider what an army of God is.  No one is sure, but the name has been used for 30 years. Here is an entry: in the early 1980s, womens clinic in Granite City, Illinois, was defeated repeatedly by fundamentalist protestors.  Then the operator of the clinic, Dr. Hector Zevallos and his wife Rosalie have been kidnapped by a group of men that called themselves as the Army of God.  Couple held for eight days in an abandoned munitions bunker.  The kidnappers said they killed them both, if Dr. Zevallos pledged to stop performing abortions he did, and they were released.  Then, these three men were later convicted for the kidnapping.  The leader, Don Benny Anderson, declared that God told him to wage war against abortion.  After that, Anderson received a 30-year prison sentence.  Also, he was convicted of setting fire in two Florida abortion clinics and drew t he second 30-year period. In 1984, when the Norfolk Womens Clinic was firebombed, the initials of Army of God were scrawled on the wall.  Soon after this, clinic near Washington was firebombed, and people claim that they represent the army of God. In 1993, the fundamentalist Rachelle Shannon had shot clinic doctor in Wichita, Oregon. She boasted that she was providing Gods will.  The police found the Army of God manual filled with quotations of the Bible, bomb-making instructions, and the declaration, saying that abortion should be stopped.  Guide said the army of God units did not stay in one place, so that the feds will never stop us, as describe in The Army of God: More Religious Killers? In 1996, two more nail-studded bombs hit Atlanta January 16, in a clinic for women and 21 February at gay nightclub.  After the second explosion, raw, unsigned, semi-literate letter was sent to Reuters, who passed it on to the FBI:  the letter said that both bombs were placed by the units of the army of God.  It also stated that those, who were involved with abortion can become victims of retaliation.  With regard to gay club, in latter there was ungrammatically described the following: We will target sodomites, there are organizations and all those who push there agenda, as stated in The Army of God: More Religious Killers? The police also found a letter, which threatened the United Nations and the United States government.  As a fact, it declared the following: We declare and will wage war to destroy the ungodly communist regime in New York and your legislative-bureaucratic lackey of Washington. It is you who are responsible and preside over the murder of children and the policy question that the wicked perversions destroy our nationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ã‚  Death of the New Order world, according to FBI National Press Release. Now, the FBI circulated a letter nationally, in the hope that some citizens will recognize the language style and determine bombers. Unfortunately, the army of God saga emphasizes an unpleasant fact of life: the most dangerous people are often the most religious. Without any doubts many Americans are categorically against  this organization and its  methods  of struggle for  their  moral beliefs. As a matter of fact, in the 90s of the XX century the scandal erupted, when Nail Horsley posted on the Web so-called Nuremberg files. It was a list of doctors, owners of the clinic that make aborts, as well as their family members, judges, famous  political and social activists, lobbying for abortion.  Also in the file were listed women who have done abortions.  The files presented not only photo with the name of the murderers, but also their addresses, telephones, video anything that can be useful if you decided to find a person.  It should be noted that these files Horsley collected himself by walking, recognizing, photographing, and published it in the Internet.  In addition, he paid photographers and volunteers, who did pictures for his list.  Horsley strongly believes that doctors, who have helped to do the abortions, shou ld be judged in a Nuremberg trial. Horsley declared the following: The Nuremberg files remind people that the doctors who kill babies are criminals and should be judged just like the Nazis at Nuremberg, as described in The Army of God. To be more precise, the U.S. Supreme Court long ago made it clear that there is nothing against abortion. However, authorities did not find anything illegal in Horsleys action and explained that under the First Amendment, these actions have nothing criminal. In my opinion, this situation is connected with the fact, that among influential Americans there are a lot of supporters of abortion ban in the U.S., for example George Bush Senior is considered one of the opponents of abortion.  Moreover, after this Web publication Horney also stated the following: We do not want all of them to die. But then, three thousand babies will die today its a fact and this fact is ignored in the past 25 years, according to Anti-Abortion Violence Defines Army of God. In my opinion this characterizes AOG as organization of  implacable fanatics  on  the religious and  moral  grounds,  who believe that they  have a right to decide  what people  can, and  what can not  do.  As a re sult of this Web publication some abortion supporters were killed or wounded: doctor John Britton was murdered in 1994 by AOG activist Paul Hill, Dr. David Gunn was shot in 1993, Canadian  Dr. Garson Romalis and Hugh Short were wounded by snipers.   Moreover, Horsley became cross the names of dead doctors on his site. According to Anti-Abortion Violence Defines Army of God, Horsley declared: My position is that people, who kill babies are responsible for the abominable act, and we should not be surprised if other people rise to fight against them. That is why we should legally prohibit abortion. Otherwise, murder and terrorism will grow up around us. Many people interpreted this  as  an open  challenge to  society and demanded to punish AOG and its participants, but authorities stated that freedom of speech can not be prohibited in the U.S. However, Stephanie Mueller, from the National Abortion Federation, declared that Horsley did not tell the full story on the site link to the attacks on doctors.  She said that one doctor was attacked in the summer of 2000, after the fact that information about him was published by Horsley.  We know other doctors who have received death threats after being caught in the files.  We think that the site is really cause violence against those who do abortions, as stated in Anti-Abortion Extremism: The Army of God. Psychological aspect In order to understand AOG behavior and motives I would like to concentrate on the analysis of AOG relation to such concepts like human life, abortion and its consequences. It should be noted that human embryos is human life form.  Consequently, in the eyes of an absolutist religion, abortion is evil, that has no different from murder.  As a fact, one of the most vociferous opponents of abortion is the Catholic Church.  When George W. Bush came to power, authorities began to fiercely protect human life as long as it is in its infancy (or terminally ill) state, not hesitating to ban medical research that could save the lives.  Embryos topic, it seems, has on many religious persons truly hypnotic effect.  Mother Teresa of Calcutta, accepting the Nobel Prize, said bluntly in her speech: The worst enemy of peace is abortion. Returning to the theme of war against abortion, I suggest you listen to the founder of the Randall Terry rescue operation, according to Understanding Th e Army Of God, he said following: When I or my supporters will come to force in this country, you will be better to disappear soon, because we will find, judge for trial and punish you.  Im not kidding.  I will do my best to condemn and punish them all. Randall Terry is referring to abortion doctors. His Christian feelings are evident and in subsequent statements:  I want to see you on the head faced a wave of intolerance, a wave of hatred.  Yes, hate its what you needà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ã‚  Our goal is a Christian nation.  Our duty is recorded in the Bible, God told us to conquer this country. We do not want pluralism.  Our goal must be simple.  We need a Christian nation, founded on the law of God, and without but, according to Understanding The Army Of God. Many experts consider that such intentions create something like Christian fascist state, which is very typical for religious organization in the U.S. This is almost an exact copy of an Islamic fascist state, of which many dream on the other side of the globe.  Fortunately, Randall Terry did not come to power, yet.  But those who are watching the developments on the American political scene there is no reason to particularly enjoy. Supporters of ethics or utilitarianism are likely estimate the issue of abortion from a different perspective and try to estimate the amount of suffering.  The most important question if the embryo is suffering? Doctors state that if the abortion is performed before the formation of his nervous system, most likely no, even if the nervous system is already there, it certainly suffers from less than an adult cow in a slaughterhouse. Does a pregnant woman or her family suffer in case the abortion is denied?  It is quite possible, and in any case, gi ven the almost complete absence of the embryo nervous system, is not it should give preference to well-developed nervous system of the mother?  In my opinion, it should be. We live in a free country with developed civil society, our right of choice should be guaranteed. As a fact, the advocates of ethical implications have their own reasons to oppose abortion.  It is assumed, that embryo does not suffer, but a culture that allows interrupting a human life can lead us too far.  Where do we draw the line?  Where is the line that separates us from killing children?  In my opinion, this line is natural birth, and perhaps we can say that in an earlier, embryonic, developing a similar milestone is hard to find. These arguments are also possible to put forward as the arguments against euthanasia.   However, AOG and other opponents of abortion do not care about these arguments.  From their point of view everything is much easier.  Embryo is a baby, its destruction is the murder. That is it, end of discussion.  From such an absolutist position it is difficult to make far-reaching conclusions.  They require, despite the dizzying medical perspective, to stop research on embryonic stem cells, because, as a result, embryos stem cells die.  Illogicality of the last argument is obvious when you think about what is now widely used by IVF (in vitro fertilization), during which doctors stimulate the production of the female body more ovum for in vitro fertilization.  At the same time receive up to a dozen viable embryos, of which the uterus is implanted two or three.  It is expected that one or two will survive.  Thus, the destruction of embryos occurs at two stages of IVF, but the procedure for the society as a whole have no complaints.  For over 25 years, IVF is a st andard practice that brings happiness to childless couples, as described in Annihilating abortuaries is our purest form of worship. A certain category of religious believers can not see the moral difference between destroying a microscopic group of cells on the one hand and the murder of an adult doctor on the other.  According to Doctor Chaplain and the Army of God: In a terrible book of Marc Yurgensmayer Terror in the name of God there is printed a photograph of the Rev. Michael Bray with his friend, the Rev. Paul Hill, holding a banner with the slogan: Is it possible not to hinder the murder of innocent  babies?. They and their associates from the Army of God are committed to  set fire to abortion clinics and do not hide their desire to kill doctors. As a fact, July 29, 1994 at the entrance to the clinic of the city of Pensacola, Florida, Paul Hill killed with a revolver Dr. John Britton and his bodyguard James Barrett. After he surrendered to the police,  he stated that shot the doctor to stop the killing of innocents.   Before proceeding to a discussion of abortion I would like to consider Paul Hills case, as one of the typical example of AOG participants behavior. As it was mentioned above, Paul Hill, with the full support took the law into his own hands and killed the doctor.  Hill started to defend his action by making a distinction between killings, say, retired doctor to vengeance and murder of a medical practitioner to stop them produce regular babies killing. In turn, abortion supporters stated that, despite the apparent sincerity of Paul Hills belief, he should not forget that if everyone starts to punish and pardon according to personal beliefs, not adopted by the laws, society will slide into a monstrous chaos.  Is it not correct to change the law in a democratic manner?  Paul Hill replied: Well, the problem here is that sometimes we have no real, genuine law, the law sometimes is fabricated on the spot of the head, as in the case of so-called law on abortion rights, a judge imposed on its peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, according to Doctor Chaplain and the Army of God.  In my opinion Paul Hills relation to these questions very much like the position of living in Britain of Muslims, who openly declare that they are subject only to Islamic law, and not accepted in a democratic manner the laws of country of their residence.   In 2003, Paul Hill was executed for the murder of Dr. Britton and his bodyguard; he claimed before the execution that to save the unborn would have killed again. He was speaking to reporters: I believe that by punishing me, the state makes me a martyr. Authorized by law, the murder of Hill, it is reasonable, but it may provoke new attacks by providing an effect opposite to the expected.  Paul Hill on the way to the death chamber was smiling, saying: I expect reward in heavenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ I look for fame.  He urged others to follow in his steps, as stated in Doctor Chaplain and the Army of God.   I presume that very interesting was the fact, that one of the representative of certain abortion clinic named Paul Hill as a dangerous psychopath.  But people like Hill, do not consider themselves as dangerous psychopaths, they consider themselves as good, moral people who perform the covenants of God.  Frankly, I do not think that Paul Hill was psycho.  In my opinion, he was just a very religious man.  Without any doubts he was dangerous man, but not a psychopath.  To be more precise, misinterpretation of religion made him dangerous.  In accordance with AOG religious beliefs, Hill was right and moral by killing Dr. Britton. It should be noted that almost all vehement opponents of abortion are deeply religious.  Army of God activists do not see the moral difference between killing the embryo and killing a doctor, except that the embryo, by their definition, is the innocent baby. Proponents of ethical implications are able to evaluate the differences. In the early stages of embryo development in their ability to feel and even in structure and appearance, does not exceed the tadpole.  The doctor, on the contrary is formed, endowed with the consciousness of the individual with hopes, aspirations, dreams, fears, a wealth of knowledge, ability to complex emotions, most likely leaving behind inconsolable widow, orphan children, perhaps a loving elderly parents.   In my opinion, Paul Hill has caused a real, deep, prolonged suffering to human being that was able to feel and has a complex nervous system.  His victim, a doctor did not do this.  As a fact, embryos do not have the nervous system on early stage of development, and undoubtedly, are not affected. Moreover, even at a later stage embryos with nervous systems suffer not because they are human, but because they are living beings. In other words, there is no reason to believe that human embryos at any age suffer more than cows or sheep embryos of similar age.  And there are many reasons to argue that all embryos, including human, suffer much less than an adult cow or a sheep to the slaughter, and even more so slaughtered during the ritual killing of animals in some Muslims countries, when, according to religious requirements, they must be fully conscious  at the time of cutting the throat.   Of course, it is not easy to evaluate the suffering. You can argue about the details, but this does not change the main idea, which regards the differences between the position of opponents and supporters of the ethics implications of religious, absolutist moral philosophy. The first concerned whether the embryos suffer. The second concern, whether those are human beings.  Religious moralists argue when embryo becomes a person, a human being.  Despite this, abortion supporters, most likely, will put the question differently: it does not matter whether it is a person, more important questions, in what age the developing embryo is capable to feel pain, no matter what kind of animal it is. Conclusion To sum it up, I would like to say that Army of God is a terrorist organization within the U.S., which main purpose is in achieve a complete prohibition of abortion on the territory of the United States and also to punish medical  personnel  as well as  women  who  have had  abortions by different prison sentence and death penalty. Especially I would like to mention the fact that according to AOG, every doctor who made an abortion (kill the embryo) must be killed, because he deprived a human being of life. As a fact, AOG began its activity from 1982 and exist even today. From that moment AOG issue manual instructions how you can make a bomb or fire up abortion clinic. Also, there is AOG website, on which every person can enter the organization and help to their right case. Moreover, in its activity AOG is based on religion, namely Catholic Christianity and approve all violence by interpretation of the Bible. It can be said that the organization is responsible for two bombi ngs in 1996 in Atlanta, a series of murders and cases of kidnappings in relation to doctors and other medical staff of abortion clinics all over the country. As a fact, the advocates of ethical implications have their own reasons to oppose abortion.  It is assumed, that embryo does not suffer, but a culture that allows interrupting a human life can lead us too far. However, AOG and other opponents of abortion do not care about these arguments.  From their point of view everything is much easier.  Embryo is a baby, its destruction is the murder. That is it, end of discussion.  From such an absolutist position it is difficult to make far-reaching conclusions. In my opinion, this whole nightmare comes from the usual differences of perception.  There are people because of their religious beliefs considering abortion as murder, and ready to open fire, protecting embryos, which they prefer to call their babies.  On the other hand, there are people, no less sincere support abortion without any religious views, but with principles of morality.  They also see themselves as champions of the idea of providing medical care to the patients in need, who otherwise would have had to turn to unskilled underground healers.  Each side believes the other murderers or accomplices of the killers.  And each in his own way sincere. It is difficult to find a common ground in this situation. I think that first of all each side should show  greater understanding and  reduce  the level  of aggression  towards  the opponents. As a solution, I propose to consider the possibility to build abortion clinics in certain areas, similar to gambling th at allowed only in several areas. On the one hand, women will have an opportunity to make an abortion in safe conditions and doctors will no longer fear for their lives. On the other hand, abortion opponents will be satisfied with the fact that abortion is legal only in several areas in the country and every woman on her way to the clinic will have an opportunity to think if she really needs to take this step. I strongly believe that our society should take measures to solve this problem, and such organizations like Army of God with its violence will no longer have support of our citizens.

Contraception Defies Gods Will Essays -- Morals Birth Control Argumen

Contraception Defies God's Will   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The use of contraception was never as widely proclaimed and exhibited as it is now. The use of contraception has become so mainstream, that it is now â€Å"normal† for even teens to use these contraceptives. Schools promote the use of this once taboo practice of artificial birth control, and partake in the distribution of condoms amongst students. This is a clear example of how modern society and its practices can change the way people act morally and physically.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many Catholics who use contraceptives instead of family planning. This is not accepted by the Catholic Church, and is considered to be wrong. Catholics believe that sexual intercourse is a gift that was given to this earth by God, only to reproduce. This belief is clearly over looked by many people today, not only Catholics. Sex is used a tool for pleasure and to fulfill sexual desire. Outside of marriage, sexual intercourse should not be practiced. This is a blatant dishonoring of what God proclaimed to his followers, and is also considered a sin. The predominant reason why people use contraceptives is to avoid the risk of unwanted pregnancy and also to try to avoid sexually transmitted diseases. This is going against the will of God, and in the Catholic community it is unlawful.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many activists who are against the use of contraceptives. Some of these people hold seminars and demonstrations that portray their opinions that are in the nature agai...

Courting and wedding rituals in America and Afghanistan

Both countries use symbolic traditions in their beliefs of courting and weddings.  The fact that both Afghan women and North American wear a white dress at the wedding proves that the countries believe in a certain set of values. The color white overall is a sign of purity. For the signing of the documents and the after party of the wedding, Soraya wears a green dress, â€Å"we were seated around table, Soraya and I dressed in green-the color of Islam, but also the color of spring and new beginnings†(Hosseini 179). A green dress would show loyalty towards Afghanistan.North Americans believe it is bad luck to let the bride and groom see each other the night and day before until the wedding. The groom and bride in Afghan traditions are not to be left alone at all before the wedding, â€Å"Soraya and I never went out alone together while preparations for the proceeded-since we weren’t married yet, hadn’t even had a Shirini-khori, it was considered improper† (Hosseini 178).Afghans and North Americans both have the marrying couple in the center of attention, â€Å"A procession of uncles, aunts, and cousins followed as we made our way through the hall, parting a sea of applauding guests, blinking at flashing camaras†(Hosseini 179). Most of the time they are up on a stage while saying their vows, â€Å"I remember sitting on the sofa, set on the stage like a throne, Soraya’s hand in mine, as three hundred or so faces looked on†(Hosseini 180).The similarities between two different cultures are mostly found in the beliefs of the people and their traditional symbols.

Yes or No to Mandatory Vaccinations

Yes or No to Mandatory Vaccinations Should vaccinations be mandatory for children entering school? At the present time, all fifty states in the United States require children entering public school to be vaccinated. However, no federal vaccination laws exist (ProCon. org, Children Vaccinations, Did you know? ). Many parents hold religious beliefs against vaccination. Forcing such parents to vaccinate their children would violate the First Amendment, which guarantees citizens the right to the free exercise of their religion.Others believe that common childhood vaccinations may cause rare, yet serious reactions. Proponents of mandatory vaccination argue that the risk of not being vaccinated far outweighs the small risk associated with vaccination. Preventable diseases like measles and mumps can cause permanent disability and death. In 1991, an outbreak of measles in an unvaccinated group of children in Philadelphia caused seven deaths (ProCon. org, Children Vaccinations, Pro). Children infected with mumps can become permanently deaf.Although a very small number of deaths from the MMR (measles, mumps, and rubella) vaccine have been reported, the most common adverse reactions are minor soreness and or fever. Vaccines can eradicate disease and prevent serious illness and death. Mandatory vaccination has eliminated disease that once killed thousands of children, such as polio and smallpox. According to the researchers at the Pediatric Academic Society, childhood vaccinations in the United States prevent about 10. million cases of infectious illness and 33,000 deaths per year (ProCon. org, Children Vaccinations, Did you know? ). They believe that most childhood vaccines are 90-99% effective in preventing disease (ProCon. org, Children Vaccinations, Pro). When children who have been vaccinated do contract a disease, despite being vaccinated against it, they usually have milder symptoms with less serious complications than an un-vaccinated child who gets the same diseas e.Since some individuals who have been vaccinated may still get sick when exposed to infected individuals, 75%-94% of the population (depending on the disease) must be vaccinated to achieve â€Å"herd immunity† (ProCon. org, Children Vaccinations, Pro). When herd immunity is achieved, the number of immunized individuals is high enough to prevent the spread of disease through the population. Even when diseases seem to no longer exist, outbreaks can still occur if children are not vaccinated.In Boulder, Colorado, fear over possible side effects of the whooping-cough (pertussis) vaccine led many parents to refuse vaccination for their children, causing Boulder to have the lowest school-wide vaccination rate in Colorado for whooping-cough, and one of the highest rates of whooping-cough in the United States as of 2002 (ProCon. org, Children Vaccinations, Pro). However there are certainly concerns about vaccinations. According to a 2010 survey by the University of Michigan, 31% of parents believe that they should have the right to refuse mandated school entry vaccinations for their children (ProCon. rg, Children Vaccinations, Con). They believe that vaccines are often unnecessary in many cases where the threat of death from the disease is small. During the early nineteenth century, death from childhood diseases, such as, whooping-cough, measles, and scarlet fever, fell dramatically even before immunization became available (ProCon. org, Children Vaccinations, Con). This decreased mortality has been attributed to improve personal hygiene, water purification, effective sewage disposal, and better food hygiene and nutrition, not immunization.Many against mandatory vaccination believe that vaccinations interfere with natural law and God’s plan for humanity. They believe that disease is a natural occurrence and humans should not interfere. Vaccines can trigger autoimmune disorders. An un-vaccinated child can build and strengthen his immune system through fi ghting off infection and can develop a natural immunity to diseases like measles and chickenpox. Vaccines could create an artificial immunity which weakens the immune system, leaving the child more vulnerable to other diseases and infections.Opponents of mandatory vaccination believe that vaccines are created for primarily to generate profit for manufacturers and medical organizations that endorse vaccinations. While the economic slant is bothersome to those opposing mandatory vaccines, their side of the argument is fueled by claims paid under the National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program in the United States Court of Federal Claims between 1988 and 2009, which has awarded compensation to 1,322 families whose children suffered brain damage from vaccines (ProCon. org, Children Vaccinations, Did you know? . About 30,000 cases of adverse reactions to vaccines have been reported to the federal government since 1990 (ProCon. org, Children Vaccinations, Did you know? ). Only 13% of tho se cases were classified as serious, i. e. permanent disability, hospitalization, life-threatening illness, or death (ProCon. org, Children Vaccinations, Did you know? ). Should parents have the right to determine whether their child should have mandatory vaccinations, or should the government have the right to decide whether vaccinations are in the best interest of national health?It has been proven that vaccinations can help eliminate diseases that once killed thousands of children. There is still the thought that any risk to a child from immunization is not worth taking, especially considering that most diseases vaccinated against are not necessarily life threatening. The â€Å"slippery slope† seems to be whether the government should have the right to interfere with First Amendment rights.